Chapter 17, Process Evaluation

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Can be difficult to phase out. Depends on consistent funding, when technologies are developed, and policies for diffusion. May have high benefits in long term. Initially benefits selected participants; potentially easy for funds to be misallocated. Requires many separate decisions; depends on research capacity and longterm funding.

Evaluations are predicated on assumptions that instrument are representative of best practice rather than theoretically perfect. This assessment is based primarily on experiences and literature from developed countries, since peer-reviewed articles on the effectiveness of instruments in other counties were limited. Applicability in specific counties, sectors, and circumstances—particularly developing counties and economies in transition—may differ greatly. Environmental and cost effectiveness may be enhanced when instruments are strategically combined and adapted to local circumstances.

Chapter 17 Process Costing | Sydney Baker - www.farmersmarketmusic.com

There are many challenges to effective adaptation policy. The Adapting panel report NRC, a discusses many of these issues in detail. The need for future climate policies that are broader in scope, more flexible, and more ambitious than current policies will also require that policy makers employ iterative decision making and adaptive risk management see Box 3. This poses new and expanded research challenges. Among the most important are 1 monitoring compliance with treaties, 2 assessing the benefits and costs of climate targets, and 3 examining complex and interacting policies.

Research has shown that improving the effectiveness of international agreements will require a variety of mechanisms to verify compliance Mitchell, ; Winkler, ; see also Chapter Substantial improvements in technical capabilities will be required to meet these needs. Numerous methods for performing more direct GHG measurements exist or have been proposed. For example, CO 2 could be measured directly at large concentrated sources, to supplement indirect measurements calculated from fuel inputs Ackerman and Sundquist, An expanded network of ground-based, tall-tower, aircraft and satellite measurements of atmospheric CO 2 including its isotopic signature could be combined with atmospheric circulation models to infer regional anthropogenic CO 2 signals among natural sources and sinks of CO 2.

In particular, a high-precision, high-resolution satellite system such as the Orbiting Carbon Observatory which crashed at launch in February could provide the critical baseline CO 2 information against which decadal CO 2 trends can be verified following a climate treaty NRC, h. A recent NRC study k examined a number of these approaches, including their potential use in treaty monitoring and verification.

The technology for monitoring changes in land use has also been an active area of research for decades and continues to grow in sophistication Asner, ; GOFC-GOLD, ; Moran, Verification of climate treaties will also require enhanced institutional arrangements Winkler, The defense, intelligence, and diplomatic communities have considerable experience with designing both technology and institutional arrangements to effectively monitor treaty compliance, and in particular to deploy remote sensing for fine-scale local observations.

Expanded engagement of these communities might substantially advance the pace at which the science of monitoring and institutional design evolves and thus provides enhanced support for decision making around international treaties. National and international law enforcement agencies as well as traditional treaty enforcement institutions may also need to be involved since most proposed policies have the potential for fraud and falsification Gibbs et al.

As in prior national security agreements, effective verification mechanisms may require surmounting discomfort, in the United States as elsewhere, over provisions allowing access for international inspectors.

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Finally, establishing standards and certification mechanisms will be extremely important to reduce emissions. Standards and certification are sets of rules and procedures that are intended to ensure that sellers of credits are following steps that ensure that carbon is actually being sequestered and thus are closely related to monitoring. Proposals are appearing in the literature on how to develop and implement such standards Oldenburg et al. These could be informed by the existing literature on how standards and certifications are used to shape the use of technology, including how such standards are negotiated, implemented, and enforced with varying degrees of effectiveness Bingen and Busch, ; Eden, ; Hatanaka et al.

These issues are also closely connected with the discussion of monitoring and observation discussed above. One of the most critical issues in policy design is comparing and assessing different trajectories to achieve GHG emissions reductions and evaluating the consequences and implications of those trajectories for human and environmental systems.

In contrast, this subsection provides a high-level overview of the social science research needs associated with analytic methods to evaluate targets, focusing on the two major alternative approaches: Benefit-cost analysis is a method of systematic evaluation of the total social consequences of any decision or strategy. Applied to climate change, it has been used to assess alternative GHG emissions trajectories, typically by comparing a few simple al-.

Benefit-cost analysis requires expressing climate change impacts and lost services in an overall monetary metric so they can be compared to estimates of the costs associated with policies to limit the magnitude of future climate change.

Chapter 17 Evaluation and Evidence-Based Practice

Ancillary costs and co-benefits of climate policies, which refer to costs and benefits in other areas such as changes in local air pollution resulting from climate policies, are sometimes included in the calculations as well. Such analysis can be conducted for a specific region or nation, or for the world. Benefit-cost analysis can examine the expected benefits and costs of a particular target or policy or, by looking across targets, can identify an optimum target that maximizes net social benefits.

If costs and benefits can be systematically and reliably projected and compared discussed below are five of the major challenges that must be met to accomplish this objective , the socially optimal level of GHG emissions will be the level where the marginal benefit of reducing GHG emissions further will be equal to the marginal cost of making further GHG emissions reductions.

If these calculations can be done credibly, decision makers can use this information to 1 set a limit on GHG emissions, 2 set a price on GHG emissions whether implemented through market mechanisms or full costing of regulatory programs like emissions standards , and 3 get some sense of how important the climate problem is relative to other major societal problems. An alternative approach, cost-effectiveness analysis, stipulates some limit on climate change e.

For example, cost-effectiveness analysis has been used to compare alternative trajectories by which global emissions slow their growth and then decline to meet specified limits on atmospheric CO 2 concentration or human-caused radiative forcing in the 22nd century e. Cost-effectiveness approaches are often used when the costs and benefits of some action differ greatly in character, and the benefits are subject to greater uncertainty or controversy.

In this circumstance, cost-effectiveness analysis allows analytically based comparisons of decisions without requiring that all impacts—in this case, damages from climate change and costs of emissions reduction—be reduced to a single metric. However, the implicit value this imputes to GHG emissions reductions is still equal to the marginal cost of GHG emission reductions that results from hitting the target or staying within the tolerable window.

Of course, this implicit value can then be used to adjust the target if that value is felt to be lower or higher than the aggregated marginal value of the climate change impacts avoided.

Such an iterative approach to GHG target setting allows multiple metrics to be used in evaluating the impacts of climate changes without completely abandoning the discipline provided by the strict application of cost-benefit analysis. Formal policy-analytic methods such as benefit-cost and cost-effectiveness analysis can be powerful tools for informing decisions and illuminating structural issues underlying them and have had significant influence in climate policy debates.

However, in practice, several major challenges must be met to provide reliable guidance to policy e. The modeling community has made significant progress in addressing each of these challenges see references within each section , but further progress in each area would greatly improve the usefulness of the results produced. Five challenges are particularly difficult and influential in contributing to differences in cost-benefit valuations between alternative studies. These challenges, discussed in the paragraphs below, have to do with being able to systematically and comprehensively evaluate the benefits of GHG emissions reductions, being able to consistently and comprehensively project the costs of GHG emissions reductions, or being able to compare costs and benefits over time, under uncertainty, and across different socioeconomic groups.

Estimating the social value of goods and services, particularly for impacts on ecosystems, climate-related amenities, or other resources and values for which market prices do not exist.

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If formal policy-analytic methods are to be used to inform the choice of climate targets, rather than merely the choice of alternative means to meet a specified target, then all consequences of climate change and of efforts to limit it must be made comparable and valued. Economic theory argues that prices in well-functioning markets reflect the full social value of the goods and services that are exchanged, so market prices can be used to value changes in those goods caused by climate change.

For impact sectors where markets exist like agriculture, this allows structural models. However, many important things that will be affected by climate change, such as environmental amenities, ecosystem services, and human health effects, are not exchanged in markets and so have no market price to provide guidance on their social valuation.

However, the range of estimates from the various studies is large and there is no consensus on the best approaches. In principle, uncertain outcomes can be given a probability weight so that more likely outcomes are given greater weight and less likely—but much worse—outcomes are given lesser weight. Equally or more important here can be assessing how people perceive and act on the different risks that they face. Comparing costs, damages, and impacts in the near and long term setting a social discount rate. The rationale for discounting future costs and benefits i. Discounting has both an ethical and a scientific component, and when these are correctly distinguished, the case for some form of discounting is compelling Arrow et al.

There are substantial disagreements, however, over the appropriate functional. In addition, since many of the people who will be affected by climate change the most have not yet been born, an equitable way of factoring their preferences, which cannot be directly measured, into the calculations needs to be developed Portney and Weyant, Because many costs of reducing climate change occur in the near term while the most serious of the climate impacts avoided would be further in the future, socially optimal levels of climate change limitation in a benefit-cost framework can be quite sensitive to choices about discounting; lower discount rates usually imply stronger and earlier action to limit climate change than higher discount rates.

Estimating how policy will influence technological change. It is possible that technological innovation will create opportunities to reduce GHG emissions at lower than present costs, but the rate of such innovation and the relative influence and mechanisms of various possible ways to stimulate it are subject to substantial uncertainties. Alternative models of induced technological change highlight the influence of policies to raise the effective price of emissions, learning-by-doing, public versus private investments in research and development structured in various ways, basic science versus specifically targeted research, and overall investment driven by aggregate economic growth.

Incorporating equity considerations into the analysis. The costs and benefits of climate change adaptation and limitation will be unevenly distributed across space, time, and social and economic groups. Although costs and benefits could in principle be weighted to incorporate equity concerns Atkinson and Mourato, ; Kverndokk and Rose, , in practice this poses significant challenges of observing and projecting disaggregated costs and benefits and, if aggregation is required, identifying defensible equity-based weights. Moreover, formal analyses of climate change responses have examined only aggregate effects at the level of the jurisdiction considered.

International aggregations of climate change impacts are often valued in terms of losses in income, which tends to bias the weighting toward richer and away from poorer people who have less to lose but will feel percentage losses in income more. That there are significant research challenges that remain regarding the major ele-. Consumers of these studies need to know what factors are included in the analysis and how, and which ones are left out or only partially represented.

They can then add their own assessments of the missing elements and perspectives to the numbers they get from the cost-benefit calculations in order to provide a more complete picture of the value of different policy alternatives. At the same time, the raw numbers themselves, if interpreted correctly, can often help decision makers set bounds on appropriate actions, especially if we are far away from the optimum. While many policy analyses, such as benefit-cost, assume rather generic policy instruments e.

They also interact with other climate and nonclimate policies at different scales and jurisdictions and their institutional design and implementation critically shapes their effectiveness Young, a. Previous National Research Council reports and the international community have detailed the research agenda in this area see in particular Biermann et al. Three key topics emerge from these analyses and our own assessment of the challenges faced by policy analysis in supporting climate change decision making: These topics are explored in the paragraphs that follow.

In the United States as of December , 32 states and the District of Columbia had adopted mandatory standards that, over the next 10 to 20 years, will require that between about 10 and 15 percent 2 of the energy supplied by utilities come from alternative and renewable sources Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Four other states have voluntary standards.

State and local governments as well as the federal government have a variety of programs, including labeling, appliance standards, and. States vary in how the standards are defined so comparisons of goals can only be approximate. It is not completely clear how existing policies will be affected by, or will affect, future ones, especially across governance scales. If policy analysis is to inform policy decisions, then it has to find ways to understand and model these complex interactions Selin and VanDeveer, These interactions can have substantial influence on the effectiveness of polices.

As the IPCC has concluded, programs intended to inform and influence behavior can multiply the effects of other policies. For example, home weatherization programs offering identical financial incentives differed in impact by more than an order of magnitude, depending on how they were implemented Stern et al. Legislation and regulations also involve political compromises that add complexity and cause actual policies to deviate from their original goals Pressman and Widalvsky, Moreover, domestic climate policies could enhance or retard the U.

Nor are these interactions restricted to the U. International climate policy will interact with many other international agreements and laws. For example, trade agreements may either contradict or complement mechanisms for enforcing emissions limitations Weber and Peters, Efforts to encourage transfer of technologies to reduce emissions may be facilitated or inhibited by intellectual property agreements Brewer, Development funding can enhance or retard efforts to reduce and adapt to climate change Klein et al.

A substantial literature has identified the possibility of these complex interactions, but their implications are only just beginning to be explored in depth. There may be advantages to such complex policies, if they can be designed taking into account both political reality and the implications of the complexity involved—complexity that may lead to more robust policy Anderies et al.

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Interactions can be also positive as policy instruments try to reap co-benefits across policy goals. A few mechanisms, such as the CDM and the United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries, seek to reap co-benefits both across mitigation and adaptation and across climate policy and development. For example, the CDM allows Kyoto Annex 1 countries to offset their carbon emissions by generating carbon credits through the creation and implementation of projects in Annex 2 countries.

However, empirical research has found that suc-.

Many levels of government are already engaged in adapting to and limiting the magnitude of climate change Betsill and Bulkeley, ; Betstill and Rabe, ; Paterson, ; Rabe, ; Schreurs, ; Selin and VanDeveer, Public-private partnerships and public-social partnerships between business and communities add to the complexity of emerging policy Lemos and Agrawal, This complexity raises important questions about the legitimacy of climate policy, including the scope and means of representation of stakeholder interests Falkner, ; Ford, The multilevel governance system of climate policy presents both opportunities and challenges for policy makers.

However, the capacity of decision makers operating at any one level can be enhanced or more frequently constrained by the policies at other levels Adger et al. The appropriate mode of governing depends on the character of the problem and available resources including knowledge , the dynamics of the sector involved, the availability of policy options for other policy actors, and the constellation of political interests around a policy Dietz and Henry, ; Dietz et al.

Recent literature also suggests that polycentric policy i. In the case of adaptation policy, the implications of multilevel, hybrid forms and polycentric governance both domestically and internationally are many and varied. Processes at the global and national levels will influence local adaptation decisions and vice versa; in the United States and around the world, a great variety of actors and institutions including local, regional, state, federal, and tribal authorities will influence those decisions e.

For example, in less developed regions, adaptation policy critically intersects with development and decentralization of government authority Agrawala, ; Burton et al. Climate change is a quintessential equity problem since those who have been historically least responsible for causing it will be disproportionally negatively affected by it Adger et al.

There are usually three main sources of inequality shaping climate policy dialogues: In addition, other distributional and equity factors need to be considered in the design of adaptation policy. For example, many of those most severely affected by climate change are often those least able to engage effectively in policy decision-making processes. Many policies have the potential for indirect or secondary impacts that may be inequitably distributed Kates, While a rich literature explores different equity aspects of climate change as a problem, including exploring the three aspects of inequality mentioned above in greater detail e.

With regard to adaptation policy in less-developed regions, equity and distribution of costs and benefits of climate change is intrinsically related to the structural inequality and multiplicity of stressors that shape vulnerability to climate impact including poverty, lack of education and access to health care, and war and conflict see Chapters 11 and Equity issues will also greatly drive political debates in the domestic climate policy context see Limiting the Magnitude of Future Climate Change [NRC, c]. For example, the fear of job losses is already prevalent in fossil fuel-dependent industries and regions of the United States Peterson and Rose, Policies that place a price on carbon will affect various industries and regions of the country differently and will differentially affect socioeconomic groups within regions Oladosu and Rose, As scientific knowledge and public awareness about the potential consequences of climate change have grown, the nation and the world have moved from trying to decide whether or not to have climate policy to trying to decide what policies will most effectively limit the magnitude of future climate change and help populations and their infrastructure adapt to its impacts.

Scientific analysis can inform this discussion by elucidating the factors that influence the adoption, implementation, and effectiveness of both domestic and international agreements. This research includes improving methods for quantifying and comparing benefits, costs, and risks associated with climate change and climate policies; developing methods for analyzing complex policies and combinations of policies; learning how to design policies that work at multiple levels of governance; and examining climate policies in a broad context, including overall sustainability goals, concerns with equity, and relationships with an array of nonclimate policies.

The challenges are substantial but so are the opportunities for both advancing science and gaining scientific knowledge that contributes to effective policy making. Some specific research needs include the following. Evaluate the intervention effectiveness in order to progress or modify an intervention. Plan an effective home program and instruct the patient in same.

The elbow serves an important linkage function that enables proper positioning of the hand and the transmission of power from the shoulder to the hand, thus augmenting the versatility and agility of the upper extremity. Unlike the shoulder, the elbow complex is an inherently strong and stable joint, because of the interrelationship of its articular surfaces and ligamentous constraints. However, the stability of the elbow complex allows little in the way of compensatory adjustments, making it particularly vulnerable to overuse injury from repetitious muscle activity and sudden movements of acceleration and deceleration.

Appropriate diagnosis and treatment require a detailed understanding of the normal anatomy of the elbow. The elbow complex, enclosed within the capsule of the cubital articulation, is composed of three distinct articulations: The anterior joint capsule of the elbow originates from the distal humerus proximal to the radial and coronoid fossa, from where it then inserts distally into the rim of the coronoid and the annular ligament AL.

The joint capsule of the elbow complex is thin but strong, and is reinforced medially and laterally by ligaments. The humeroulnar trochlear joint is a uniaxial hinge joint formed between the incongruent Please enter User Name Password Error: Please enter Password Forgot Username? Use this site remotely Bookmark your favorite content Track your self-assessment progress and more!

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