Contents:
The Great Lakes Front.
Groping for a Way. First the Good News. The Rock of Sisyphus.
Moral and Diplomatic Dilemmas. The Treaty of Ghent. The Battle of New Orleans. Index About the Author. The Art of American Power During the Nester Potomac Books, Inc. Where to Draw the Line? A People at War. Bluff, Bluster, Lies and Spies. The Battles of Kings Mountain and Cowpens. A Separate Civil War. The Everything American Revolution Book. Shmoop US History Guide: The American Civil War, Prince George's County and the Civil War. Free Trade and Sailors' Rights in the War of Building the Continental Empire. A History of the United States.
The War of American Independence. The Hamiltonian Vision, — A Companion to George Washington. Historical Dictionary of U. Diplomacy from the Revolution to Secession. Amid a Warring World: American Foreign Relations, — The First War of United States. What So Proudly We Hailed. Neither Victor nor Vanquished. George Washington - Unabridged Guide. The Historical Atlas of the American Revolution. George Washington's Military Genius. Brothers to the Buffalo Soldiers. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Civil War.
Napoleon and the Art of Diplomacy. Hearts, Minds, and Hydras: The Republicans won easily, but now they would have the responsibility to govern, and as many subsequent parties and candidates have discovered, it is one thing to win an election, quite another to govern effectively. For a time, at least, the Republicans would have it their way. In his first inaugural address Jefferson laid down his political philosophy in his own words, written in his own hand. If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve this Union or to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it.
Equal and exact justice to all men …; peace, commerce, and honest friendship, with all nations—entangling alliances with none; the support of the state governments in all their rights, …; the preservation of the general government in its whole constitutional vigor, as the sheet anchor of our peace at home and safety abroad; a jealous care of the right of election by the people; absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority …; a well-disciplined militia—our best reliance in peace and for the first moments of war, till regulars may relieve them; the supremacy of the civil over the military authority; economy in the public expense, … ; the honest payment of our debts and sacred preservation of the public faith; encouragement of agriculture, and of commerce as its handmaid; … freedom of religion; freedom of the press; freedom of person under the protection of the habeas corpus ; and trial by juries impartially selected.
In keeping with his basic republican principles, he favored informality in the White House. He got rid of the coach and six that Washington and Adams had used, and at dinner he sat people randomly around the table rather than in order of rank. His informality of dress surprised many, especially foreign diplomats used to the grandeur of European courts. Also in keeping with his idea of minimal government Jefferson asked Congress to repeal the federal excise taxes on whiskey and cut military spending.
His attitude toward military matters bordered on pacifism he had not fought during the Revolution and he has been criticized for allowing the U. His purpose was a frugal government, an admirable goal, but some saw the reduction of military expenditures as dangerous. Jefferson regarded a large federal deficit debt as dangerous to republican government. He viewed large military expenditures as dangerous and likely to provoke hostilities. He cut federal expenses, mostly through reductions in military spending. Reduction of the army had the further benefit of removing a threat to Republican government, as he saw it; standing armies were still very unpopular.
He saw the repeal of the whiskey taxes by Congress as a way of reducing the hand of government on the people. Jefferson was hounded by Republicans for political offices, but he gave jobs only to those he thought competent, no matter what their party. He did not fire Federalists because of their party affiliation, but many retired. Some, who saw where things were going politically, like John Quincy Adams, became Republicans.
Several points about the election are notable:. Thus the era of the American Revolution ended with the country sometimes weak and insecure.
But as Jefferson pointed out in his inaugural address, the American nation was strong and secure overall; the people had found a system in which they could believe, even as they argued and fought over its execution. We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists. I believe this, on the contrary, the strongest Government on earth.
The Jeffersonian Vision, –, reveals how the nation's leaders understood and asserted power during those crucial years between Thomas Jefferson's. The Jeffersonian Vision, , reveals how the nation's leaders understood and asserted power during those crucial years between Thomas Jefferson's.
They lost out because they were unwilling to adopt popular campaign techniques, and they opposed territorial expansion and the War of Although the Federalists disappeared, a summary of the Federalist Contribution to American history is worthwhile. They do not always fare well among historians because some of their ideas seemed to be anti-republican.
Nevertheless, their accomplishments are notable:. Once the Federalist Party had disappeared, having been discredited by its opposition to the War of , America became for a time essentially a one-party system. James Monroe ran unopposed for president in Some politicians at that time began referring to themselves as National Democrats, but there was really only one party. Nevertheless, the country was divided by many political issues which we will discuss below. By political divisions had begun to reappear in the country.
Well before that election took place, five potential presidential candidates had emerged. In the end, John Quincy Adams became president. That controversial election was the last one ever decided in the House of Representatives. By a new political coalition had begun to form out of the old Democratic Republican party, but this time they were referred to as Democrats.
Remnants of the old Federalist Party, along with Adams supporters, generally men of a more conservative persuasion, began to call themselves National Republicans. They never coalesced into a formal party, however. They called themselves Whigs, a name traditionally used by political groups opposed to autocratic rule. The Whig Party survived until the s, when it broke up over the slavery issue. Many of the issues that divided the Democrats and Whigs during these years, such as the National Bank and protective tariffs, came to a head during the Jackson administration.
By the country had changed a great deal. Voting privileges had been extended to virtually all adult white males, and organized political parties began to field candidates for president and vice president on a single slate. The European world was in a period of relative calm, and America was able to develop internally without significant interference from overseas. As the country grew and expanded, domestic politics were typically rough-and-tumble, but lurking barely below the surface of the nation was the institution of slavery, which was dividing the country ever more sharply along sectional lines.
Jefferson's politics were clearly liberal, according to the meaning of the term in that age, and so were Jackson's. But Jefferson's politics had a sort of elitist overtone. Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, 28 Oct. The age of Jackson, on the other hand, is known as the age of the common man.
That belief was symbolized by Jackson himself, who rose from very humble beginnings to the highest office in the land. It is during the age of Jackson that we will see modern ideas of democracy begin to emerge. Thomas Jefferson is claimed with some justification as a political icon by both liberals and conservatives in modern times, for there were elements of his political philosophy that are consistent with the beliefs of both groups.
Yet Jefferson's positions must be viewed both in the context of his own times and in the context of the changes that have occurred over the course of American history. Thomas Jefferson wished to be remembered on his tombstone for three things: Jefferson was a true liberal in his pursuit of freedom of speech and religion, the spreading of republican democratic values far and wide, and in his general approach to government. He was willing to see blood shed in the cause of freedom, not only during the American Revolution, but as a general principle.
On the other hand, he felt that all government was a necessary evil, and that that government which governed best governed least. He was one of the first sponsors of government-supported education for all children, and among his proudest achievements was the founding of the University of Virginia. Jefferson felt that an educated citizenry was the surest way to protect democratic institutions and guard against oppression. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson , ed. Because politics were often so bitter in early America, they frequently became personal.
Their mutual animosity was personal as well.
Jefferson to Lincoln p. Known for her beauty, Sally was Thomas Jefferson's wife's half sister. Neither Victor nor Vanquished. Despite American protests, the British operated at will on the seas, and hundreds of American seamen were impressed. The measure was seasonable and salutary. Delivery and Returns see our delivery rates and policies thinking of returning an item? The Whig Party survived until the s, when it broke up over the slavery issue.
Jefferson also found himself at odds with George Washington, whom he believed had been duped by Hamilton into following unfortunate policies. One sad outcome of the political bitterness of the s was the rupture of the friendship between those two giants. Fortunately for posterity, Adams and Jefferson were later reunited in correspondence through the intercession of their mutual friend, Dr. Benjamin Rush, and spent their latter years writing each other about a wide variety of topics. Very little of their correspondence involved past issues. One fascinating letter exchange, however, took place between Abigail Adams and Thomas Jefferson.
She sent condolences to Jefferson upon the death of his daughter in Abigail joined the debate with vigor, and their exchange lasted several months. John Adams knew nothing of it until the end. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams died on the same day—July 4, Another aspect of Jefferson's life which has gotten much attention is the relationship between him and Sally Hemings, a slave who belonged to him.
Known for her beauty, Sally was Thomas Jefferson's wife's half sister. Until this mystery was unraveled by modern science, the Jefferson-Hemings affair was a lesson in historiography, for with one set of available evidence, reputable historians came to opposite and mutually exclusive conclusions. The lesson is that honest men and women can disagree even when agreeing on the facts.
Further, our own feelings and biases can affect the way we interpret history. Gordon-Reed was bothered by the fact that evidence offered by Madison Hemings, who claimed to be a descendant of Jefferson and Sally Hemings, was discounted because he was African American. Many admirers of Jefferson are distressed over this entire issue and would prefer not even to have it mentioned.
Does that say more about Jefferson, about us, or about the different time in which Jefferson lived? Jefferson and John Marshall. John Marshall is judged by lawyers and historians to be the greatest Chief Justice in the history of the Supreme Court. He may also be the most unappreciated and neglected figure in American history, for the imprint he left on our nation and government was enormous, yet he is not well known.
After years of public service in various capacities, including military duty under George Washington during the Revolution, and a distinguished legal career, Marshall was appointed Chief Justice by President John Adams in one of his final acts before leaving office. Marshall was a Federalist who brought his attitudes of political nationalism to the bench.
Yet within a few years of his appointment, most of the Federalist judges on the court had been replaced by Republicans appointed by Jefferson or Madison. John Adams himself had called the appointment his proudest act. Jefferson had little use for courts in general or for John Marshall in particular.
There may have been personal animosity between the two men, who were distantly related, that had nothing to do with politics. Definer of a Nation, New York: In any case Jefferson went to his grave calling Marshall a detriment to American government. The two great men were at their worst when confronting each other. It began with the case of Marbury v. When Jefferson became president he discovered that Marbury had not received his warrant, ironically because of an oversight by Marshall, who had been acting Secretary of State before becoming Chief Justice.
Under the Judiciary Act, judges could sue for writs of mandamus—in this case getting the court to order the warrant delivered. Marbury sued for his warrant, but Jefferson ordered Secretary of State Madison not to deliver it. The case eventually made its way to the Marshall Court. Marshall was in a tight spot.
By now it was clear that Jefferson wanted to keep the courts, including the Supreme Court, weak.
There was no constitutional means for the Court to enforce its own rulings in the face of presidential defiance. Marshall found a clever way around the dilemma, a way that sacrificed poor Marbury but strengthened the Court immeasurably.
Marshall said that Marbury was entitled to his warrant, but could not sue for it in the Supreme Court, as he had been granted the right to do in the Judiciary Act of Marshall found that portion of the act in conflict with the Constitution, which said that the Supreme Court had only appellate jurisdiction in such cases. He asserted the right of the Court to declare that section of the law null and void—in other words, unconstitutional. Later Marshall decisions will be discussed below. Shortly after completing the Louisiana Purchase, in keeping with his wide interest in science, President Jefferson planned a mission to investigate the new territory.
Captain Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark set out within weeks. Lewis and Clark led their party of about 40 soldiers across the continent in a two-year journey. Mandan in the Dakota Territory, where they spent the first winter, and eventually reached the Oregon coast.