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The open stage and its variants were used by the majority of great national theatres, particularly those of China and Japan, the booths of the Italian commedia, the Elizabethan public and private playhouses, and the Spanish corrales i. While open-stage performance discouraged scenic elaboration, it stressed the actor and his role, his playing to and away from the spectators, with the consequent subtleties of empathy and alienation.

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Kwaku Mackenzie, founder of a Black policy think tank, hits the bottle after his father's death. As media interest in the once dynamic Institute fades. Editorial Reviews. About the Author. Kwame Kwei-Armah won the Peggy Ramsay award for his Look inside this book. Statement of Regret (Modern Plays) by [Kwei-Armah, Kwame].

It permitted high style in speech and behaviour, yet it could also accommodate moments of the colloquial and the realistic. It encouraged a drama of range and versatility, with rapid changes of mood and great flexibility of tone. It is not surprising that in the 20th century the West saw a return to the open stage and that plays of Brechtian theatre and the theatre of the absurd seem composed for open staging. The third basic theatre form is that of the proscenium-arch or picture-frame stage, which reached its highest achievements in the late 19th century.

Not until public theatres were roofed, the actors withdrawn into the scene, and the stage artificially illuminated were conditions ripe in Western theatre for a new development of spectacle and illusion.

Statement of Regret

This development had a revolutionary effect upon the literary drama. In the 18th and 19th centuries, plays were shaped into a new structure of acts and scenes, with intermissions to permit scene changes. Only recently has the development of lighting techniques encouraged a return to a more flexible episodic drama. Of more importance, the actor increasingly withdrew into the created illusion of the play, and the character became part of it. In the midth century, when it was possible to dim the house lights, the illusion could be made virtually complete.

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At its best, stage illusion could produce the delicate naturalism of a Chekhovian family scene, into which the spectator was drawn by understanding, sympathy, and recognition; at its worst, the magic of spectacle and the necessary projection of the speech and acting in the largest picture-frame theatres produced a crude drama of sensation in which literary values had no place. It may be that the primary influence upon the conception and creation of a play is that of the audience.

An audience allows a play to have only the emotion and meaning it chooses, or else it defends itself either by protest or by a closed mind. Nor, in later times, did a good playwright always give the audience only what it expected. Any examination of the society an audience represents must illuminate not only the cultural role of its theatre but also the content, genre , and style of its plays. The exceptionally aristocratic composition of the English Restoration audience, for example, illuminates the social game its comedy represented, and the middle-class composition of the subsequent Georgian audience sheds light on the moralistic elements of its sentimental comedy.

Not unrelated is the study of received ideas in the theatre.

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The widespread knowledge of simple Freudian psychology undoubtedly granted a playwright such as Tennessee Williams the license to invoke it for character motivation; and Brecht increasingly informed his comedies with Marxist thinking on the assumption that the audiences he wrote for would appreciate his dramatized argument. Things go wrong when the intellectual or religious background of the audience does not permit a shared experience, as when Jean-Paul Sartre in his day could not persuade a predominantly Christian audience with an existentialist explanation for the action of his plays, or when T.

Eliot failed to persuade an audience accustomed to the conventions of drawing-room comedy that The Cocktail Party was a possible setting for Christian martyrdom. Good drama persuades before it preaches, but it can only begin where the audience begins. A great variety of drama has been written for special audiences. In the 20th century, plays began to be written for children, though it should be acknowledged that Nativity plays have always been associated with children both as performers and as spectators. These plays tend to be fanciful in conception, broad in characterization, and moralistic in intention.

Court or aristocratic drama is readily distinguished from that of the popular theatre. The veneration in which the Noh drama was held in Japan derived in large part from the feudal ceremony of its presentation, and its courtly elements ensured its survival for an upper-class and intellectual elite.

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Although much of it derived from Noh, the flourishing of Kabuki at the end of the 17th century is related to the rise of a new merchant and middle-class audience, which encouraged the development of less esoteric drama. The popular plays of the Elizabethan public theatres, with their broader, more romantic subjects liberally spiced with comedy, are similarly to be contrasted with those of the private theatres. Whether the esoteric influences the popular theatre, or vice versa, is not clear, and research remains to be done on whether this dichotomy is good or bad for dramatic literature or the people it is written for.

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Influences on the dramatist Playwrights are affected, consciously or unconsciously, by the conditions under which they conceive and write, by their own socioeconomic status, by personal background, by religious or political position, and by their purpose in writing. The role of theory It is difficult to assess the influence of theory since theory usually is based on existing drama, rather than drama on theory. Western theory In Europe the earliest extant work of dramatic theory, the fragmentary Poetics of Aristotle — bce , chiefly reflecting his views on Greek tragedy and his favourite dramatist, Sophocles , is still relevant to an understanding of the elements of drama.

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The German Drama

Life is a tenacious force that clings desperately even to the most meager chance in an endeavor to assert itself. Indeed a wondrous bell, as only those can forge who have reached the mountain top, — they who can soar upon the wings of their imagination high above the valley of the commonplace, above the dismal gray of petty consideration, beyond the reach of the cold, stifling grip of reality, — higher, ever higher, to kiss the sun-lit sky. Emotionally, Kwei-Armah clearly sympathises with Kwaku: Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. He tells Magda that later on, when they are happily married an established in the world, they will bring child to their home and adopt it; but for the present respectability must not know that it born out of wedlock, without the sanction of the Church and the State. Millet, Meunier, Turgenev, Dostoyevsky, Emerson, Walt Whitman, Tolstoy, Ibsen, Strindberg, Hauptmann and a host of others mirror in their work as much of the spiritual and social revolt as is expressed by the most fiery speech of the propagandist. Arden Critical Companions Comedy used to be on the centre of a serious hurricane that raged through the early glossy interval.

Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Operatic drama, which had emerged as a major new art form in Yuan times, was popular throughout the Ming dynasty, and Yuan masterpieces in the tightly disciplined four-act zaju style were regularly performed. Ming contributors to the dramatic literature were most creative in a more-rambling, multiple-act….

Of all the literary arts, the Indians esteemed the play most highly, and it is in this form that most of the other arts were wedded together. Its origins are obscure, but there is reason to assume that the play developed out of recitations of well-known epic stories by….

Modern Interpretations of Greek Chorus

Bharata classified drama into 10 types. The plays performed by the Egyptian troupes and others in Arabic-speaking lands developed through three overlapping but distinguishable stages: Adaptations came first in the 19th century see above. Translations of established works appealed to a discriminating public, but original plays, part…. Drama is produced for festive occasions with a view to spiritual and religious success siddhi , which must also be prompted by…. More About Dramatic literature 32 references found in Britannica articles Assorted References influence on ballet In dance: The debate in the West In dance: Drama origins of Greek drama In Western dance: Dance in Classical Greece form and style In literature: Drama biographical materials usage In biography: Biographical literature today Elizabethan publishing history In history of publishing: England epilogue In epilogue music In Western music: Ancient Greece Romanticism In history of Europe: Chris Newby rated it it was amazing Jul 16, In doing so it charts the journey fro.

Jan 25, Pat Moran rated it really liked it Shelves: Oct 19, Jack Lamotte rated it really liked it Shelves: In them he intentionally invokes the case opposed to comedy made by means of the Elizabethan theatre haters. Love, Love, Love takes at the child boomer iteration because it retires, and reveals it choked with hassle. Smoking, consuming, affectionate and paranoid, one couple trips forty-years from preliminary burst to complete bloom.

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The play follows their idealistic teenage years within the Nineteen Sixties to their stint as a married family prior to eventually divorced and, even though disintegrated, unfastened from acrimony. Extra resources for Kwei-Armah Plays: By Kwame Kwei-Armah Few playwrights were as profitable as Kwame Kwei-Armah at bringing a particular new voice and exam of our tradition to the stage lately. The quantity is brought via the writer and contours a chronology of his work..