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In the final duel with Turnus, the leader of the Latins, Virgil describes Aeneas running after Turnus as a hound chasing a stag: Aeneas, in other words, is Virgil's poetic answer to a resolution of conflict. His prophecy of the Veltro is another way of giving his solution to the plight of the pilgrim. As critics have always thought, Virgil is proposing a hero of the stature of Aeneas but what has not been emphasized enough is that this solution is purely a poetic one.
At stake is the viability of a literary model such as the one offered by Virgil's Aeneid for a poem like Dante's Commedia. The fact that Virgil also points to another solution which is the one adopted by Dante, and that we know that the Commedia in no way follows the model of the Aeneid, just as there is no Aeneas- like hero in Dante's poem, makes only too clear the fact that Virgil's proposed model is never adopted by Dante.
Rather than deducing from all these factors that perhaps it is not a question of poetic models at all, and that my reading is moving along a false path, we should ask why Virgil's model is rejected, or is not ac- ceptable to Dante, when Virgil is nonetheless made the guide of the pilgrim in two cantiche of Dante's poem. The unquestioned authority that has always been granted to Virgil by readers of the Commedia is perhaps responsible for the scant attention that Virgil's lines, alluding to the heroes that con- tributed to Italy's "salute," have received over the years.
At first glance, the lines do not seem to present great exegetical prob- lems. Virgil mentions four warriors: Camilla, Euryalus, Turnus and Nisus, who have died for the well-being of their country, Italy. When we take the bother of looking up these names in the Ae- neid to find out how they died, we discover, however, to our great surprise, that these heroes did not die fighting for the glory of their country, as Virgil would like us to think. Camilla, for ex- ample, is killed while pursuing an enemy but not in battle, but because she is after the gold of his armor: Euryalus and Nisus are also killed for similar reasons in similar circumstances.
Although they die while on a mission for which they have volunteered — a fact which would justify Virgil's claim that they died for the good of the country — , for at least one of them, Euryalus, this is not the case. The two warriors are on a mission to reach Aeneas to bring back help against the Rutuli who are besieging their camp. They leave at nightfall to cross the enemy lines but as they go through the sleeping enemy camp they slaughter the sleeping enemies and plunder the camp: Once again the reason for the demise of the heroes is greed and excess and not the love of country.
The same can be said of Turnus who, if we read closely, is not killed for having lost the duel to Aeneas in defense of his country. When he is defeated, Turnus pleads for his life and Aeneas is about to let him go unharmed. As he is deciding, Aeneas discov- ers that Turnus is wearing the baldric of his dead friend Pallas and enraged kills him in just retribution for his act.
Aeneas uoluens oculos dextramque repressit; et iam iamque magis cunctantem flectere sermo coeperat, infelix umero cum apparuit alto The Veltro and Dante's Prologue to the Commedia 23 balteus et notis fulserunt cingula bullis Pallantis pueri, uictum quern uulnere Turnus strauerat atque umeris inimicum insigne gerebat.
In this work we propose and test a new technique to align a EUV Schwarzschild objective by means of ultraviolet light. Where could he be? Gramsci however — unlike, let us say, Adorno and other repre- sentatives of the School of Frankfurt — does not limit himself to the denunciation of this innate demolition of the policy of individ- uality or of that of the introduction of Taylorism and of the mech- anization of life. In, on the other hand, denotes location in a more general area, for countries, states, and such. Il Presidente dei Stati Uniti ha parlato al pubblico statunitense. Words ending in -tion in English, such as imagination, will end in -zione.
Their in- itial honorable and patriotic intentions become, in all three cases, secondary to their self-interest and to their desire to gain wealth which blinds them to everything else and for which they are ready to murder. The larger-than-life hero in revealing his or her all too human nature meets the fate that he deserves.
A close reading of the fate of these heroes in the Aeneid contra- dicts what Virgil says of them in the Commedia. One explanation could be that Dante ignores how these characters really died and that he is interested in mentioning their names only for the sake of quoting two warriors from each camp.
From what has been said, however, it seems highly unlikely that it is a question of ran- dom selection. All four characters share too many characteristics for this to be the case. In addition, the phrase "per cui mori" seems to draw attention to the fact that these men sacrificed their lives for their country. Another explanation could be that Dante was not really aware of the real circumstances of their death, or did not care, being interested only in the fact that out of the con- flict in which they took part Italy's well-being was achieved.
This other hypothesis is improbable on two counts. In the first place, we know how Dante has Virgil remind us that he knows the Ae- neid by heart, "ben lo sai tu che la sai tutta quanta" Inf. This reminder is also an invitation to the reader to look further in Virgil's poem for the poet's intentions. And second, and more conclusive for our argument, that while what Virgil says is contra- dicted by a reading of the Aeneid this is not a misreading of Virgil's poem. These heroes do in fact appear in the Aeneid as Virgil relates in the Commedia.
When we read further in the episode of Camilla we are told that her death will be avenged because she is protected by the goddess Diana. The unheroic circumstances of her death will be kept se- 24 Massimo Verdicchio cret and, instead, people will know that she died for the glory of her country. This is Opis' promise, Diana's messenger, at Ca- milla's death: The same can be said of the two friends, Euryalus and Nisus, who receive at their death a similar promise of glory and immor- tality: The glorification of Camilla, Euryalus and Nisus are instances of an important motif that is present throughout the Aeneid, the en- comiastic theme.
As the famous praise of Aeneas' s lineage in Book VI illustrates, one of the poem's main objectives is the exal- tation of the House of Augustus and of his ancestry. The Aeneid, which accounts for the mythic origins of the Roman Empire, is an indirect vehicle to glorify the past and present greatness of the Romans. In the Camilla episode, Virgil is in reality praising Diana who is a Roman goddess.
The facts of her death are concealed be- cause she was devoted to Diana, even though she is an enemy of the Trojans, and thus of Rome. Euryalus and Nisus are Trojans but also best of friends. Their attachment to one another provides the poet with the opportunity not only to praise Aeneas' s lineage but also to connect the everlasting power and glory of the Roman Empire with his own immortal poetry "mea carmina".
Also in this case, the unheroic deeds of these heroes are covered up and falsified by the encomium.
The Veltro and Dante's Prologue to the Commedia 25 In making Virgil repeat the praise of these heroes and the lie that they died for the glory of their country, Dante is calling atten- tion to this aspect of Virgil's poetry and to the deceit inherent in encomiastic poetry. It is not difficult to see the substance of Virgil's promise to the pilgrim.
Virgil makes the same promise that Opis makes to Camilla or that the poet makes to Euryalus and Nisus. The reasons why this should be so and why the pil- grim needs Virgil's "help," however, are not immediately appar- ent especially from the way the episode of the pilgrim and the lupa has always been read. It is to this episode, and to the follow- ing lines, that I would like to turn now: The "firm foot" is the lame foot of the soul denoting a weakness of the will wounded by concupiscence.
This weakness hinders the progress of the intellect signified by the right foot. This con- dition is not clearly discernible at first because of the simple com- parison that seems to describe only the effect of the lupa on the pilgrim: The movement of "quei" who gradually and willingly volontieri accumulates acquista , or gains ground, is undone by the sudden presence of the she-wolf in the second term of the comparison.
Sapegno, in his commentary, has suggested this second possibility whereby the "quei" can be compared to a miser: But the comparison seems to describe more than the desire with which the pilgrim would like to reach the top. The pilgrim falls prey of the lupa because he is guilty of the same excess that the animal symbolizes. The lupa functions here as a reminder of the pilgrim's greed and of the vanity of his attempt.
Most commentaries to these lines have understood the pilgrim to be the victim of the she-wolf and have placed the blame en- tirely on the animal and on the greed it represents. The presence and the promise of Virgil are then easily explained by a future event when the lupa will finally be vanquished. What I am sug- gesting, instead, is that the blame lies entirely on the pilgrim and that the lupa is only Dante's way of reminding us of the fact.
The pilgrim hopes to get quickly to the top in much the same way that Virgil's heroes crave the possessions of others and both act of their own free will. The analogy between the pilgrim and the characters of the Aeneid is not casual in fact. The same desire to gain, in both cases, makes the individual forgetful of his true du- ties and brings about his undoing. The Veltro and Dante's Prologue to the Commedia 27 This similarity explains the pilgrim's call for help and Virgil's reply and solution. As a good reader of the Aeneid, the pilgrim knows that Virgil has helped others in similar circumstances.
He knows that Virgil will overlook the events, place the blame on others, and conceal his shortcomings with praise. We know that this is what Virgil promises him when he alludes to his characters who now appear as heroes and not as the men they really are. There is one other detail, however, that must be mentioned now which explains better the pilgrim's request and Virgil's reply. In the one case of poetic "justice" in the Aeneid, the death of Camilla is blamed entirely on the man who kills her, a certain Arruns. We are never told why Arruns followed Camilla everywhere for a chance to kill her but his tireless pursuit has all the trademark of fate.
When he does kill her, Virgil's description of the event makes him look like a coward who has struck a poor defenseless woman. Virgil compares him to a wolf who has killed a shepherd or a big steer and knows he has done wrong: With this in mind, the pilgrim's request is more than justified and Virgili reply not in vain. As a reader of the Aeneid, the pilgrim knows from a paral- lel example that he can expect a similar form of justice.
This just- ice is markedly one-sided and in favour of the authorities it serves. It not only conceals the crimes of those whose patrons it seeks to please but also distorts the truth of events whereby the guilty are said to be victims and their just fate an injustice. If we had not read the rest of the poem and took Virgil at his word, we could expect to be reading a poem about a man very much like Aeneas who restores order to a strife-torn Italy. The poem would sing the praise of the powers it served and would be characterized by a similar system of bipartisan justice in favour of those whose protection it sought.
We know already that this is not the case with Dante's poem but the reason is that Virgil's poetic model, which he proposes 28 Massimo Verdicchio through the prophecy of a coming Veltro, is rejected on account of its biased system of justice. The critique of this model is made clear not only in the two opposed solutions that Virgil gives, only one of which is correct, but also in the way in which Dante con- structs the episode. When we observe closely the list of warriors mentioned by Virgil we realize that Turnus does not really fit in with the rest of them. Although he is an example of greed like the rest, it cannot be said that Turnus died for the well-being of Italy.
Viewing it from the point of view of the Trojans, Turnus is an ob- stacle and a detriment to that well-being. Only his death brings about the peace and unity that Virgil is extolling. Virgil, in fact, does not avenge him or celebrate him like he does the others, even though the others are just as guilty as he is. Turnus, instead, is more on the side of characters like Arruns. They are personifi- cations of evil whose ritual death at the hands of the gods is an af- firmation of justice and an end to all injustices. Turnus' s presence among the other warriors is conspicuous for another reason.
In the series of names, Turnus is placed between Euryalus and Nisus, two characters who are really part of one epi- sode, "Eurialo e Turno e Niso di ferute. The presence of Turnus amongst them is, however, more dramatic and relevant when we remember that Euryalus and Nisus are said to be the best of friends in the Aeneid. The two never separated, they were always together, when they went to battle they went together, when one volunteered for the mission the other also went. Virgil says of them: We have mentioned how Nisus, who in the meantime had reached safety, returns to help his friend who has been caught by the enemy.
They fight together and when they are killed their bodies are found together, "turn super exanimum sese proiecit amicum con- fossus, placidaque ibi demum morte quieuit" Aeneidos IX. W T hen Virgil sings their praise, as I have already quoted, he celebrates their inseparability which he adopts as the symbol of the unity between his poetry and the House of Augus- tus.
As long as Virgil's poetry will be influential and the Romans will be in power the memory of the two inseparable friends shall never be forgotten. The symbolic importance that the two friends have for Virgil in the Aeneid makes highly significant, therefore, the placing of Turnus, the symbol of discord in the Aeneid, be- tween the two friends. The separation of the two friends means first of all that their memory as a "fortunati ambo" has been indeed obliterated and replaced by the memory of their greed which is the cause of their death.
The union of poetry and political power that the two symbolize is also broken and not only because the House of Augustus no longer rules the world. The break, which implies a critique of the enco- miastic poetry we have in the Aeneid, points to the history of greed and deceit which is concealed under the lie of a history of noble and selfless acts performed for the glory of one's country. As a result, even the fiction of a "pious Aeneas" becomes suspect not only because he is the embodiment of the noble and selfless man, and the ancestor of Augustus, but also because he is the in- strument of a justice which is corrupt.
The reappearance of Turnus amongst Virgil's heroes points to the shortcomings of Virgil's politically compromised system of justice. A poetic justice that conceals the aberrations on which po- litical power is constructed and slavishly flatters the powerful.
Consequently, Virgil's own motives are in question here and his greed for which he compromised his poetic integrity. He will expiate his cupiditas in Purgatorio XII. Virgil's promise of a Veltro who will restore Italy to health is only a nice fiction which is no longer acceptable. The fiction of a new Aeneas would only perpetuate the evil under a compromised sys- tem of justice where definitions of good and evil are decided on the bases of political power and not of merit.
For these reasons, at the level of a poetics of the Commedia, Virgil's proposal and poetic model is rejected and the Commedia takes another road, a road of a different type of justice, as we shall see. At this point, and before we go on to describe Dante's version of the Veltro, it must be said that if Dante rejects Virgil's poetic model this does not mean that he rejects the Aeneid or Virgil.
Dante rejects only the idea of a poem like the Aeneid that courts the favour of the powerful it glorifies. I also do not mean to say that Virgil was taken in by his own fiction. There is sufficient evi- dence to believe that the myth of Aeneas and of the glorious Roman people is also put into question by Virgil. The glorifica- 30 Massimo Verdicchio tions of Camilla and of Euryalus and Nisus are treated ironically as Virgil first elaborates in detail on their base and unheroic ac- tions and then praises them.
This is more clear in the case of Turnus's death at the end of the Aeneid which, abruptly, marks the end of the poem. As I have said, Aeneas first grants Turnus his life and then kills him because he has murdered Pallas. There is reason to believe, reading between the last lines of the poem, that Aeneas's justification for killing Turnus is suspect and that the poet wanted to call attention to Aeneas's act of injustice when he describes Turnus's indignance "indignata" at Aeneas's "ex- cuse" for killing him: Dante rejects in Virgil only the compromise that places poetry at the service of political power for personal gain.
Like Camilla's desire for gold, Euryalus' s helmet, Turnus's baldric, or the pilgrim's lupa, the presence of Turnus's amongst Virgil's he- roes points to the poet's greed for which he willingly compro- mised his art in exchange for a comfortable living, as Juvenal iron- ically points out in the seventh satire. Dante rejects the fic- tion of a Veltro, of a pious and noble man, who is above the greed and the deceptions of ordinary men, capable of bringing about the resolution of political and social conflicts.
The tendency to take Virgil's prophecy literally and to accept him as the voice of authority in the Commedia, has made the reader overlook an im- portant detail in the description of the Veltro that might have alerted him to Dante's critique of Virgil's model and to Dante's very different Veltro. The lines in question are the following: That is to say that speaking of the Veltro, Dante is saying that it will not feed neither land nor wealth, but wisdom, love and virtue, and its nation will be be- tween two felts. The verb cibare is used in the same transitive active voice two other times in the Commedia.
In one instance the verb is used to describe the feeding of the blessed by the Agnus Dei at the Celes- tial Banquet: In the latter case, the verb refers specifically to the teachings one finds in Dante's poem which the poet, as the scribe of his poem, offers to the reader for his edification. A similar idea is behind the use of cibare in the episode of the Veltro.
Since we are in the prologue canto of the Commedia, the prophecy of the Veltro is a way of saying that the poem to come will not teach the reader how to become successful in business and wealthy; rather it will teach him wisdom, love and virtue. To the riddle of the Veltro and to the question "What is the thing that feeds neither land nor pelt but only wisdom, love and virtue and its domain is between two felts? The felt lining is in accordance 32 Massimo Verdicchio with the humble and unassuming character of the book and its modest aims.
At the time of Dante, books could be covered with intricate and costly covers and, very often, they were lined with velvet. The practice of using the imagery of feeding, in the sense of teaching, and in a prologue to acquaint the reader with the con- tent of the work to be read, is not new with Dante who used a similar technique in the Convivio.
The Convivio, Dante tells us, needed to be written because the reader seduced by the beauty of the poems simply enjoyed them but did not read them allegorically for the moral lessons "bontade" they meant to convey. The prologue canto of the Commedia shares with the introduc- tion of the Convivio not only the imagery but also a similar preoc- cupation.
This is expressed as the liberating action of the Veltro and is the way in which the Commedia will teach wisdom, love and virtue: In Dante's poem there can be no illusion that evil can be exorcised once and for all through the punitive action of a god or a pious man. The reap- pearance of Turnus in Dante's poem makes this clear. The killing of the lupa is Virgil's fiction not Dante's.
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The lupa does not symbolize envy, as the wolf represents evil in the Aeneid, so that its defeat at the hands of the Veltro can signify the successful overcoming of evil. The lupa in the Commedia, as I have indicated, is only a sign pointing to the presence of greed and of envy. As a sign, the lupa points to those who are guilty of this sin in very much the same way as the helmet points to Euryalus's greed, Pallas's baldric betrays Turnus's, and the pres- ence of Turnus amongst Virgil's warriors Virgil's own avidity.
These are signs that point to a deceit or a transgression which makes it possible to uncover it and to punish it. The task of Dante's Veltro will be to hunt down these examples of greed found in every city of the "umile Italia" and to place them where they belong in Hell or in Purgatory.
He will look for Florentines, Romans, Greeks and everyone whose baseness is concealed by an apparent noble character. In the terms of Dante's allegorical rep- resentation, to place the lupa in Hell means to bring about in the reader the moment of recognition of a particular evil or crime which is how the Commedia will teach its readers to become wise, loving and virtuous.
Dante's objective in the Commedia is to teach the reader to go beyond the mere letter of poetic representation to unveil the truth that it conceals, in very much the same way in which he is to learn to go beyond the appearances of things to the truth behind. In the Convivio, the mode of representation which the poet uses to convey his moral teachings is called the allegory of poets and con- sists of two concurrent but different levels of meaning: In the now famous letter to Cangrande, Dante gave the etymology of allegory as that which is other, different.
A set number of conventions govern the relation between sign and referent. The symbols employed are to a large extent part of an established system of meanings and one needs only to establish the connection to decode the meaning of the symbol. In allegory the meaning is other than what appears to be at first. The literal meaning is only a fiction, a "bella menzogna," whose purpose is to hide the allegorical truth to which it points. Differently from the symbol, poetic allegory is not so easily determined because it does not depend on a reliable system of meanings for its expres- sion.
In poetic allegory, it is the meaning the poet gives to the fic- tion that is at stake. In the letter to Cangrande, Dante explains what these two levels are. The poetic fiction is the journey in the three realms or, more specifically, the representation of the state of the souls after death. The allegorical meaning, however, is in function of the system of justice that punishes or rewards men's actions voluntar- ily undertaken. The meaning of the allegory is the judgment of man as he is deserving or undeserving because of actions dependent on his free will. Un- like the type of justice that exists in the Aeneid, this justice is im- partial because it is not compromised by political affiliations and personal gain.
The Veltro and Dante's Prologue to the Commedia 35 The process through which these teachings are imparted, how- ever, is not always clear and transparent as the episode of Virgil's prophecy of the Veltro has shown. Virgil's vice must be deduced by going beyond the meaning of the letter to the hidden mean- ings, and truth, that it conceals.
This is where the Convivio and the Commedia differ. In the earlier work, Dante sets out to explain to the reader the meaning of his poems that he has missed, in the Commedia the reader is on his own. He has to read the poem alle- gorically and uncover the deceit himself if he wants to become wise, loving, and virtuous. Through this process of reading, or of "feeding" to use Dante's metaphor as it is employed in Paradiso X, the reader gradually learns and, supposedly, also journeys from Hell to Paradise. The reference to feeding in Paradiso X under- scores this necessity, namely, that the reader can reap the re- wards only if he is capable of eating the food that the poem feeds him, "Messo t'ho innanzi: Virgil's lie of noble and selfless heroes is exposed through the presence of Turnus which disrupts the authority of Virgil's poetic word.
Once the presence of the discordant element is perceived, namely the sign that points to the infraction, the awareness brings about the moment of judgment. In the case of Virgil, the ironic presence of Turnus is sufficient to expose Virgil's bias and to undermine the validity of his claims. Through this ironic mode of signification, the souls in Inferno and in Purgatorio are made to reveal their wrongdoings which is not immediately apparent at a first reading.
Encountering Paolo and Francesca, Brunetto Latini or Ulisse, to name only a few of the most well-known "heroes" of the Inferno, the reader has often been at a loss to justify their presence in Hell. In the case of Virgil there has never even been the suspicion of a possible deception. But as for Virgil, what is related by the souls is always a lie that can never be taken at its face value but must be unmasked before the truth can be known.
This task is given to the reader who is called upon to perform a similar critical task that Dante put into practice in the Convivio. This is the task to go beyond the seduc- tion of the language of love of Francesca, the promise of immor- tality of Brunetto Latini and the rhetoric of Ulisse, to make mani- fest the truth that their language conceals. Cacciaguida, commenting on the doctrinal function of the poem in Paradiso XVII and once again using a food metaphor, alludes to the inherent difficulties in this task of allegorical inter- pretation: The reader's relationship to the poem is not unlike that of the pilgrim to Virgil.
It requires, as its necessary precondition, the refusal of the lie of an easy and factitious solution and an avowal of the basically corrupt nature of man from which the reader is not exempt. Only on this condition, it would appear, the reader can benefit from the poem or, to put it in terms of the Convivio, only when the food of the poem is consumed with the bread of commentary can the "real" beauty of Dante's poem be appreci- ated. The first canto of the Commedia is an allegory of this process in the initial demistification of the pilgrim's attempt to reach the "dilettoso monte" Inf.
The precondi- tion for the journey, or the reading, is in the realization of a self- deception whose foundation seems to be rooted in a mistaken conception of self and its powers which, at the level of poetic rep- resentation, has its equivalent in the deluded belief in the validity of a symbolic conception of art. Virgil's dual reply, to take another road and to look forward to a new Veltro, allegorizes the decep- tion inherent in a symbolic mode of reading the poem which, as the embodiment of a desire, turns fiction into reality; and, sec- ond, it points to the indirect path of allegorical representation.
To The Veltro and Dante's Prologue to the Commedia 37 be sure, there is only one road and its precondition is the awareness of the deceptive nature of the other road which, al- though easier, more direct and more pleasurable, leads the travel- ler nowhere when it does not lead him to his downfall. The allegory of irony that defines the Commedia is exemplified by the relationship between the pilgrim and Virgil in the Inferno and Purgatorio, and between the pilgrim and Beatrice in the Paradiso.
At the end of the prologue canto, after the subject matter of the poem has been announced allegorically, the journey, which is the poem, begins with Virgil's beautiful lie leading the way and Dante's truth following right behind: Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, Contains a good recapitulation of previous interpretations of the Veltro. Oxford University Press, , p. Vergilius Maro, Aeneidos in Opera, ed. At the Clar- endon Press, Henceforth all references are given in the text. Natalino Sapegno Milano and Napoli: Camilla ed Eurialo, Turno e Niso.
MacMillan St Martin's Press, These sa- cred books so bound were only the property of emperors. See John Hannett, An Inquiry into the nature and form of the books of the ancients; with a history of the art of bookbinding, from the times of the Greeks and Romans to the present day inter- spersed with bibliographical references to men and books of all ages and countries, illustrated with numerous engravings by John Andrews Arnett London: Groomridge, , p. Less expensive binding, prior to the introduction of printing, was done by adapting wooden boards for side covers.
Skin or parchment would be sewn on these boards. Later on, velvet became the most often used material, "used for the covers of the best works" pp. Dante's remark that the covers of his Commedia are lined with felt stresses the simplicity of its appearance in contrast to the usual practice of bookbinding where the emphasis is on ornamentation. The choice of felt is consonant with the underlying idea that the poem shall lead man to virtue and not to riches. The general thrust of the poem, as I have said, is to go beyond the deceptive richness of appearances to the truth within.
The reading of "feltro" as felt lining has been suggested many times by critics who have re- called the use of felt that lined the wooden interiors of medieval ballot boxes. To quote only two of the most noteworthy examples of read- ings of the Ulysses's episode: At issue is not whether the souls are or are not deserving, rather that being all deserving they are justly rewarded. At the lit- eral level, is described "status animarum beatarum post mortem," and at the al- legorical level, "est homo prout merendo obnoxius est iustitie premiandi" Epistola XIII.
Altri episodi, invece, vanno esaminati dal punto di vista della prevalenza dell' ovviamente magico come parte di una tradizione letteraria. Specialmente nel- l'ultima redazione si percepiscono dei germi di crisi, sia dal punto di vista storico che da quello personale. Giorgio Padoan definisce l'Orlando Furioso " Per cui la magia si origina in noi ed incarna ap- punto la nostra preferenza per l'illusione.
La vita, nel Furioso, si forma e si sostanzia di una ricerca continua. Qui, attraverso l'osservazione del delicato lavoro testuale, si spera di intravedere alcune istanze della "presenza" del poeta. Dopo il vivace trambusto dei due cavalieri combattenti ott. Si sente, all'ottava 33 a , una distinta alterazione di atmosfera: Fugge tra selve spaventose e scure, per lochi inabitati, ermi e selvaggi.
Trovossi al fine in un boschetto adorno, che lievemente la fresca aura muove. Duo chiari rivi, mormorando intorno, sempre l'erbe vi fan tenere e nuove; e rendea ad ascoltar dolce concento, rotto tra picciol sassi, il correr lento. Angelica si vede apparire davanti un mondo incantato. Qui Angelica pre- ferisce l'illusione: Nella 36 a , e specialmente nella 37 a ottava, l'Ariosto fa evolvere ancora questo senso illusorio di un ambiente magicamente im- mune.
Nella 36 a ottava cominciano a palesarsi le prime reazioni di Angelica di fronte al "boschetto adorno. Quivi parendo a lei d'esser sicura e lontana a Rinaldo mille miglia, da la via stanca e da la estiva arsura, di riposare alquanto si consiglia: Quivi parendo a lei d'esser sicura e lontana a Rinaldo mille miglia, da la via stanca e da l'estiva arsura, di riposare alquanto si consiglia: Da immagine statica nelle prime due redazioni "E lo lascia nel margine de l'onde" il verso 7 si trasforma nell'ul- tima stampa in rappresentazione dinamica che si incentra sul mo- vimento sinuoso sia del cavallo che delle "chiare onde": La sostituzione di avean ad avea v.
L'intera 37 a ottava consiste di una descrizione del "bel cespu- glio" scorto da Angelica non lontano dai due corsi d'acqua. La 37 a ottava si presenta cosi nell'edizione del I, 37, A Nelle ultime stampe invece si presenta cosi: Sono i versi in cui si trovano le componenti nuove che l'Ariosto, avendo elimi- nato i primi due versi originali, aggiunse nelle ultime stampe. Nel terzo verso "che de le liquide onde al specchio siede" l'autore precisa una nozione generica introdotta nel primo verso dell'ot- tava: Si stabilisce ora invece una relazione di- retta fra i corsi d'acqua e il cespuglio: I corsi d'acqua formano due sinusoidi orizzontali che circoscrivono lo spazio.
Nel quarto verso "chiuso dal sol fra l'alte quercie ombrose" si definisce una linea verticale, prodotta da l'alte quercie ombrose v. Al primo colpo d'occhio il cespuglio attrae per i suoi prun fioriti e le sue ver- miglie rose v. Domina dal quarto verso il senso di un progres- sivo insinuarsi nella scena di ombre e di tenebre che finiscono per avviluppare tutto lo spazio.
I raggi del sole sono ostacolati sia dalle querce v. Dentro letto vi fan tenere erbette, ch'invitano a posar chi s'appresenta. La bella donna in mezzo a quel si mette; ivi si corca, et ivi s'addormenta. Angelica riacquista subito la propria co- scienza e riprende a riflettere e a calcolare come sfruttare l'occa- sione I, Agli interminabili gridi lamentosi di Sacripante contro la Fortuna crudel I, All'improvviso esce dal cespuglio, appare come dea ad un Sacripante meravigliato: Nel Furioso la vita, che si ricrea sotto veste fantastica, diventa anche pura energia psichica: Pensando a Ruggiero, Italo Calvino scrisse: Sappiamo bene che tutti gli osta- coli saranno vani Il cavaliere, apparentemente, vive in balia dell'urtarsi di queste due potenze contrarie.
Invano, Atlante cerca di sottrarre Ruggiero al suo fiero destino IV, Ma, come nota Calvino, Ruggiero "non sembra aver fretta" di incon- trare il suo destino ". Atlante tenta con il piacere e con l'illusione. Ma forse le potenze rivali che si contendono Ruggiero in gran parte non sono che simboli dei drammi che tenzonano all'in- terno di lui. Si deve aggiungere che qui la visione ariostesca appare particolarmente ambigua e paradossale. L'Ariosto rappresenta degli aspetti irrazionali, e na- turalissimi, della natura umana.
Nell'episodio dell'isola di Alcina, lo studio comparativo basato sulle varianti sembra acquistare un valore speciale. Sotto il velo della rassegnazione ironica il poeta sembra accennare a quel dubbio se in fondo l'essenziale non consista nel lontano punto d'arrivo ma piuttosto nelle tante peripezie che si frappongono lungo la via.
Giunto sull'ip- pogrifo all'isola fatale VI, Technical Report Series, Sexually transmitted infections in Europe Una rete di laboratori pubblici per studiare le infezioni sessualmente trasmesse per via sessuale. La Sorveglianza delle Malattie Sessualmente Trasmesse basate su una rete di centri clinici: Surveillance of communicable diseases in the European Union.
Long-term surveillance strategy — Le Infezioni Sessualmente Trasmesse: Questi cambiamenti non si verificano facilmente, e comunque richiedono periodi lunghi. The core curriculum contains Elementary Educational Units the smallest particle of detailed and comprehensive medical knowledge, UDE that belong to different cultural areas. This text briefly describes the 12 scientific topics whose EDU were redrafted or because recently formed disciplines or because considerably implemented in recent years.
Nuove conoscenze hanno originato nuove discipline scientifiche la cui applicazione ha un impatto profondo sulla professione medica.
Le Cure Palliative Guido Biasco. Le Malattie Rare Mauro Celli. Non si tratta tuttavia di un concetto del tutto nuovo. La Medicina Narrativa Luciano Vettore. Alcune, come la fitoterapia, sono in linea di principio assimilabili e integrabili con la medicina, mentre molte altre differiscono fortemente dalla prospettiva su cui si fonda la medicina scientifica e in taluni casi si fondano sul principio di esistenza di una forza vitale e non riconoscono specifici meccanismi biologici alla base dei fenomeni patologici.
Le Tossicodipendenze Francesco Squadrito. Ovviamente le 18 UDE che sono state preparate sono solo in parte esclusive per la dipendenza da nicotina quale ad es. Since , the PT has been held annually for the last 9 years. At its inception it was realized that up to that time as it continues to occur in many contemporary schools the assessment of knowledge acquired during any academic year was obtained exclusively from end-of-course or end-of-year exams.
Unfortunately, such exams have been shown to have important steering on learning since they push students to prepare themselves primarily for the passing of these exams. Such exams have also been shown to indirectly reinforce the mnemonic aspect of studying medicine and in the vast majority of cases students tended to limit their studies by concentrating primarily on what they believed would be the content of the exam.
From these reflections, a new philosophy mushroomed regarding the concepts of assessment and evaluation. It became clear that what had to be left behind was the direct relationship between specific educational programs and their evaluation. What had to be evaluated was not so much the acquisition of the specific course-related learning objectives but the progressive acquisition of the final objectives of the overall medical curriculum.
For these reasons it was realized that evaluation had to be as a continuous a process as possible. Tuttavia, i sistemi adottati avevano in comune delle caratteristiche essenziali:. I principali obiettivi che erano alla base di questo progetto pilota erano i seguenti: Inoltre le domande vengono cambiate ogni anno e trasmesse ai Corsi di laurea con tempistiche strettissime per evitare ogni tipo di possibile diffusione agli studenti.
Esiste un coordinamento centrale che mantiene la segretezza del tutto e che si occupa anche di istruire tutto il personale coinvolto nelle varie sedi. Le domande sono divise per ambiti disciplinari Tabella 1: Dopo la valutazione di tutti i dati locali e nazionali, gli studenti di ciascuna sede sono informati del loro risultato mantenendo il loro anonimato se la pubblicazione dei risultati avviene in rete.
Ogni sede ottiene quindi delle informazioni sia in forma aggregata numerica che analitica rispetto agli ambiti culturali presi in considerazione. Come ogni anno, su delega della Conferenza, ogni Corso di Laurea ha deciso in maniera autonoma a quale anno di corso fosse somministrato il PT. Nella figura 5 sono riportate le medie dei risultati ottenuti per le scienze di base e per quelle cliniche ottenute dai 44 CLMs che hanno partecipato al PT Tale osservazione era riprodotta in tutte le discipline individuali delle scienze di base e delle scienze cliniche.
Per valutare meglio il dato abbiamo analizzato le diverse percentuali osservate solo considerando gli studenti iscritti al sesto anno di corso nei 44 Corsi di Laurea che hanno condotto il PT al sesto anno. In modo simile si comporta quella delle scienze cliniche dove, come osservabile in Figura 6, la media era del Il PT al suo decimo anno sembra rappresentare per i Corsi di Laurea Magistrale in Medicina e Chirurgia in Italia un test affidabile nella valutazione delle conoscenze acquisite durante il corso di laurea.
One of the strategic aims of the Italian Permanent Conference of the Presidents of the Undergraduate Curricula in Medicine is the continuous education of its members and, through them, of all the teachers who are engaged in the Undergraduate Curricula in Medicine. The first and most immediate recipients of the Conference educational strategy are the Conference members, i.
The goal is to promote educationally grounded teaching strategies. In both these types of committee the active presence of students is strongly recommended. The Educational Innovation Working Group employs two main tools in order to carry out its continuous education strategy: Educational events are lectures given in one-day meetings and workshops and forums held in two-day meetings.
The difference between the format of workshops and forums is that former are lead by medical education experts and the latter by the Presidents themselves, who report on their actual experiences and projects. The proposed goals of the ideal Medical Education Committee are the formation of both teachers and teaching organizers; the promotion of continuous improvement of an educationally grounded teaching; and the advancement of both teaching excellence and research in medical education.
Dent e Harden3 hanno recentemente elencato una lista di tematiche che richiedono di essere affrontate in modo prioritario:. Il Gruppo di lavoro ha organizzato una lunga serie di eventi pedagogici che si svolgono nelle riunioni della Conferenza: Per questo motivo, ogni riunione della Conferenza include nel suo programma un evento pedagogico, di taglio proporzionato alla durata della riunione. The challenge of reform: New horizons in medical education. A practical guide for medical teachers.
Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, Il ruolo didattico e pedagogico del Coordinatore di Corso Integrato e di Semestre. Verso una laurea professionalizzante. Acquisizione delle competenze professionali. Quelli che vengono sinteticamente riportati nel presente articolo sono i risultati del I esercizio del II ciclo Nel complesso, dal punto di vista metodologico, possono essere tratte due considerazioni principali:.
Anche gli indirizzi appaiono maturati nel senso di una maggiore attenzione agli aspetti organizzativi, comportamentali e di relazione e in questo senso ci piace credere che ci sia stato un effetto positivo del lavoro della Conferenza oltre che a quelli strutturali e visibili. Tale percezione soggettiva appare confermata dalla percezione delle commissioni che, nelle conclusioni delle loro relazioni, hanno giudicato positivamente i C. Si fa di seguito riferimento a due contesti che si ritengono di particolare rilevanza:.
Come anche nei precedenti esercizi, le visite sono state ben preparate e generalmente i Presidenti di CLM e il loro collaboratori hanno utilizzato la presenza della commissione per fare divulgazione e dibattito interno ai CLM sui problemi della didattica cercando di aumentare il consenso e la condivisone della missione del corso. A misura di questo impegno vale la pena di riportare il dato relativo alle figure istituzionali, non previste dalle varie check-list, che hanno partecipato alla visita incontrando la commissione Fig.
In altre parole in tre anni di lavoro mirato, ed evidentemente stimolato dalla motivazione indotta anche dalla partecipazione al progetto Site-Visit, i CLMMC italiani sono stati in grado di realizzare i correttivi necessari al raggiungimento dei parametri comunemente stabiliti. Un particolare ringraziamento va ai componenti della commissione centrale, Francesco Romanelli e Riccardo Zucchi, e alla task-force costituita da Raffaele De Caro, Luigi Demelia, Pietro Gallo e Bruno Moncharmont senza i quali il compimento di questo esercizio non sarebbe stato possibile.
The School of Medicine, University of Ferrara, launched a project of educational training for clinicians, teachers and tutors. The goal of this project is to create conditions for an advanced methodologically sound teaching with particular implementation on interdisciplinary aspects, in order also to standardize training curricula with European directives. The organization of the project is to be seen in a perspective period of three years with classroom seminars and interactive workshops.
This series of meetings is therefore intended for all teachers of the School of Medicine, for tutors, for health care organizers, and the aim is to present a series of teaching methods whose effectiveness is based on evidence from international literature, and above all to begin a process of serious reflection leading to feasible and innovative solutions. In questo modello didattico, la formazione del futuro professionista avverrebbe per assorbimento diretto di valori, prassi e attitudini. Non mancherebbero esempi che contraddicono questo assunto.
Se questo ragionamento fosse valido, la pedagogia come scienza non avrebbe alcun motivo di esistere e meno che meno i corsi di studio in scienze della formazione, a meno che non si intenda che ad essi sia pertinente solo la preparazione degli insegnanti della scuola primaria e secondaria. Metodologie efficaci per un insegnamento orientato alle competenze: Integrazione di materie precliniche e cliniche: Verranno presentate alcune esperienze di integrazione di successo, con lo scopo di favorire la riflessione per la progettazione di soluzioni adatte al contesto locale.
Ruolo e importanza della didattica interprofessionale: Ne deriva che la formazione continua verso le skills interprofessionali diviene inderogabile nella definizione e valutazione delle competenze professionali. Diventa quindi indispensabile la ricerca di competenze di collaborazione interprofessionale nella pratica clinica predisponendo ad esempio, periodi di tirocinio interprofessionale contemporanei, per studenti, sia di Medicina che Infermieristica o Fisioterapia o Ostetricia o altri corsi di laurea in cui si intersecano competenze didattiche di corsi di studio differenti ma che diventano utili per affrontare con un approccio integrato le problematiche cliniche.
I gruppi tutoriali e la High Fidelity Simulation per la didattica Interprofessionale: Lagazzi sostiene che la critica letteraria stia attraversando un periodo di crisi con la continua riduzione del suo spazio sui quotidiani e l'esilio solo su riviste specializzate e rivolte a un pubblico ristretto. Con il saggio Vertigo. Il 4 giugno viene presentato a Lugo il saggio Forme della leggerezza , [20] pubblicato da Rosellina Archinto.
A Forme della leggerezza seguiranno altri due saggi: Il mondo di Umberto Piersanti , nel pubblicato da Archinto. Con il nuovo libro di racconti intitolato Nessuna telefonata sfugge al cielo. Piccole storie notturne pubblicato a Torino nel dall'editore Nino Aragno, Lagazzi, accantonando per il momento la saggistica, si cimenta nella narrativa per adulti con una serie di storie notturne improntate a una sorta di humor noir. Continua intanto l'interesse di Paolo Lagazzi per la poesia e, in particolar modo, per la poesia giapponese della quale studia il tanka , forma classica del lirismo giapponese.
Nell'aprile del , dopo aver partecipato alla celebrazione per il centenario di "Mizugame" svoltasi a Tokyo il 7 dello stesso mese, scrive un articolo sul tanka e su "Mizugame", la maggior associazione giapponese di appassionati di questa forma poetica, uscito sulla rivista artistico-letteraria online "Milano Arte Expo".
Nel dicembre del , Lagazzi pubblica un piccolo libretto intitolato Mondo uovo. Una conversazione che investe etica, estetica, filosofia, teologia. Ma anche intessuta di ironia. Nell'ottobre del esce il saggio La stanchezza del mondo.