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Lastly, primates and animals exhibit precursors of muscle actions of the facial expressions of humans. Many researchers have expanded on Darwin's original theories on emotional expression. Paul Ekman , Carroll Izard and colleagues [15] were the first to test Darwin's theory. These psychologists, through cross-cultural empirical tests found that there were a number of basic emotions that were universally recognized.
Moreover, the expression of each emotion has its own respective response, manifestation in face, voice, and body. FACS is a database of compiled facial expressions, wherein each facial movement is termed an action unit AU. E explains how to become keen at observing emotion in the faces of others. It consists of the Micro Expression Training Tool METT , which trains individuals to disambiguate between emotional expressions through recognizing distinct facial expressions that are unique to each emotion.
The second part of this training program trains individuals to read micro-expressions ; a face elicits an emotion very quickly and the individual is prompted to report which emotion was seen. The Subtle Expression Training Tool SETT trains individuals to be able to recognize the subtle changes in a person's facial expression due to slight changes in emotional experiences. These subtle expressions can occur at the onset of emotions, or when an individual is actively suppressing the emotion. Appraisal models of emotion state that emotions are triggered by mental states that are truly unique in both form and function.
Appraisal models are similar to the basic model of emotion in that both views consider that, once an emotion is triggered, emotional expressions are biologically predetermined and are displayed only in one emotion and every time that emotion is expressed. The main difference between basic emotion models and appraisal models is that appraisal models assume that there is a cognitive antecedent that determines which emotion is triggered. Traditional appraisal theories consider appraisals to be universal and like a set of switches that can be turned on by biological and environmental triggers.
When a person makes an appraisal, an individual will react with an appropriate, emotional response that can include an external, emotional expression. More recent appraisal models account for variation in emotional expression by suggesting that cognitive appraisals are more like themes that can be triggered by a number of different actions and situations.
Emotional expressions arise from these appraisals, which essentially describe the context of the situation. For example, grief is elicited by personal loss. In this case, personal loss would be the appraisal and one can express grief through emotional expressions. Another model of emotion, called psychological construction, describes emotion as a construction that results from more basic psychological processes.
In a psychological construction model, basic psychological processes like affect positive or negative feeling combined with some degree of physiological activation , previous experiences, language, and executive functioning combine to form a discrete emotion experience. While some discrete emotions tend to have typical responses e.
Psychological construction models call into question the assumption that there are basic, discrete emotion expressions that are universally recognized. Many basic emotion studies use highly posed, stereotypical facial expressions as emotional signals such as a pout, which would indicate one is feeling sad. These facial expressions can be better understood as symbols of emotion rather than signals. For example, not everyone furrows their brow when they are feeling angry. Moreover, these emotional symbols are not universal due to cultural differences.
For example, when Western individuals are asked to identify an emotional expression on a specific face, in an experimental task, they focus on the target's facial expression. Japanese individuals use the information of the surrounding faces to determine the emotional state of the target face.
Social construction models generally say that there is no biological circuitry for emotions since emotions are solely based on experience and context. Some even suggest that certain emotions can only exist in the reciprocal exchanges of a social encounter. Since there are unique local languages and local moral orders, cultures can use the same emotion and expression in very different ways.
Knowing a social script for a certain emotion allows one to enact the emotional behaviors that are appropriate for the cultural context. Various researchers have highlighted the importance for an individual of being able to successfully regulate emotions. Ways of doing this include cognitive reappraisal interpreting a situation in positive terms and expressive suppression masking signs of inner emotional states.
Humans can express their own emotions and understand others as well.
The question of the cognitive import or the objective validity of religious experience is one of the most difficult problems encountered in the philosophy of religion. If you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article, you can go to edit mode requires login. There is an expression for this, too. Family members and clinicians consider spirituality an important dimension of end-of-life care. Psychological, social, and health consequences. Based on your answers, your eye doctor will fine-tune the lens power and arrangement, ultimately arriving at the optimal eyeglass or contact lens prescription for you.
Theorists such as Gardner and Sternberg have each presented different definitions and categories of intelligence. He has defined it as "the ability to understand and respond to emotions in daily life". This person will face troubles moving on with his or her life. Consequently, emotionally intelligent individuals are better at expressing and identifying their emotions and those of the people around them. Those who are adept at handling their emotions tend to live an easier life than those who are not.
Since people with better emotional intelligence are sensitive to emotions, they are considered better team players and are family-oriented. Some researchers argue that emotional intelligence is biological, while others say it is innate. Gunderman states that emotional intelligence is a learned and an instinctual skill.
Sy and Cote conducted a study that proved emotionally intelligent are more competent and perform better. Therefore, many companies are using "EI training programs" to increase matrix performance.
There are a few disorders that show deficiency in emotional expression and response. These include alexithymia , autism , hypomimia and involuntary expression disorder. Emotions convey information about our needs, where negative emotions can signal that a need has not been met and positive emotions signal that it has been meet.
In some contexts, conveying this information can have a negative impact on an individual; for example, when others ignore or exploit those needs. Researchers note that there a number of important benefits to expressing emotions selectively. For instance, emotional expression through writing can help people better understand their feelings, and subsequently regulate their emotions or adjust their actions. This research also shows that these benefits only appear when individuals undergo a cognitive change, such as in gaining insight about their experience. Emotional expression has social implications as well.
Ayer was typical, have held that religious and theological expressions are without literal significance, because there is no way in which they can be either justified or falsified refuted. On this view, religious experience is entirely emotive , lacking all cognitive value.
Analytic philosophers following the lead of Ludwig Wittgenstein , an Austrian British thinker, approach religious experience through the structure of religious language, attempting to discover exactly how this language functions within the community of believers who use it.
Religious experience must be understood against the background of a general theory of experience as such. Experience as conceived from the standpoint of a British philosophical tradition stemming from John Locke and David Hume is essentially the reports of the world received through the senses. Experience, as a tissue of sensible content, was set in contrast to reason , understood as the domain of logic and mathematics.
The mind was envisaged as a clean wax tablet tabula rasa , on which the sensible world imprints itself; and the one who experiences is the passive recipient of what is given. It is possible to distinguish and compare these sensible items by means of understanding, but the data themselves are available only through experience—i.
According to this classical empiricist view, all ideas, beliefs, and theories expressed in conceptual form are to be traced back to their origin in sense if they are to be understood and justified. The above view of experience came under criticism from two sides. Immanuel Kant , an 18th-century German philosopher, who still retained some of the assumptions of the position he criticized, nevertheless declared that experience is not identical with passively received sensible material but must be construed as the joint product of such material and its being grasped by an understanding that thinks in accordance with certain necessary categories not derived from the senses.
Kant opened the way for a new understanding of the element of interpretation in all experience, and his successors in the development of German idealism , Johann Fichte , Friedrich Schelling , and G. A second attack on the classical conception came from American pragmatist philosophers, notably Charles Sanders Peirce , William James, and John Dewey, for whom experience was the medium for the disclosure of whatever there is to be encountered; it is far richer and more complex than a passive registry of sensible data.
Experience was seen as a human activity related to the purposes and interests of the one who experiences, and it was understood as an interpreted product of multiple transactions between humanity and the environment. Moreover, stress was placed on the social and funded character of experience in place of the older conception of experience as private content confined to the mind of an individual. On this view, experience is not confined to its content but includes modes or dimensions that represent frames of meaning—social, moral , aesthetic , political, religious—through which whatever is encountered can be interpreted.
James went beyond his associates in developing the broadest theory of experience, known as radical empiricism , according to which the relations and connections between items of experience are given along with these items themselves. Critics of the classical view of experience, while not concerned exclusively with religious experience, saw, nevertheless, that if experience is confined to the domain of the senses it is then difficult to understand what could be meant by religious experience if the divine is not regarded as one sensible object among others.
This consideration prompted attempts to understand experience in broader terms. Cutting across all theories of experience is the basic fact that experience demands expression in language and symbolic forms. To know what has been experienced and how it is to be understood requires the ability to identify things, persons, and events through naming, describing, and interpreting, which involve appropriate concepts and language.
No experience can be the subject of analysis while it is being had or undergone; communication and critical inquiry require that experiences be cast into symbolic form that arrests them for further scrutiny. The various uses of language—political, scientific, moral, religious, aesthetic, and others—represent so many purposes through which experience is described and interpreted. Specifically religious experience has been variously identified in the following ways: Sometimes, as in the striking case of the prophets of the Hebrew Bible , the experience of God has been seen as a critical judgment on humanity and as the disclosure of its separation from the holy.
All interpreters are agreed that religious experience involves what is final in value for human beings and concerns belief in what is ultimate in reality. Because of their intimate relation to one another, the religious and the moral have often been confused. Religion and morality are, however, usually taken to be distinguishable; religion concerns the being of a person, what he is and what he acknowledges as the worshipful reality, while morality concerns what the person does and the principles governing his relation to others.
While it is generally acknowledged that religion must affect human conduct in the world, some have maintained that there is no morality without religion, while others deny this claim on the ground that morality must remain autonomous and free of divine sanctions. Religious experience may also be distinguished from the aesthetic aspect of experience in that the former involves commitment and devotion to the divine while the latter is focused on the appreciation and enjoyment of qualities, forms, and patterns in themselves, whether as natural objects or works of art.
Anthropological studies have shown that indigenous religions gave birth to many forms of art that, in the course of development, won independence as secular forms of expression. The problem of the relation between religion and art is posed in a particularly acute way when reference is made to religious art as a special form of the aesthetic. Since it is concerned with the holy and the purpose of human life as a whole, most scholars would hold that religious experience should be related in an intelligible way to all other experience and forms of experience.
The task of tracing out these relationships belongs to theology and the philosophy of religion. All religious experience can be described in terms of three basic elements: Although the first two elements can be distinguished for purposes of analysis, they are not separated within the integral experience itself. Religious experience is always found in connection with a personal concern and quest for the real self, oriented toward the power that makes life holy or a ground and a goal of all existence. A wide variety of individual experiences are thus involved, among which are attitudes of seriousness and solemnity in the face of the mystery of human destiny; feelings of awe and of being unclean evoked by the encounter with the holy; the sense of a power or a person who both loves and judges humanity; the experience of being converted or of having the course of life directed toward the divine; the feeling of relief stemming from the sense of divine forgiveness; the sense that there is an unseen order or power upon which the value of all life depends; the sense of being at one with the divine and of abandoning the egocentric self.
The determination of the nature of this other poses a problem of interpretation that requires the use of symbols, analogies , images, and concepts for expressing the reality that evokes religious experience in an understandable way. Four basic conceptions of the divine may be distinguished: The two most important concepts that have been developed by theologians and philosophers for the interpretation of the divine are transcendence and immanence ; each is meant to express the relation between the divine and finite realities.
Transcendence means going beyond a limit or surpassing a boundary; immanence means remaining within or existing within the confines of a limit. The divine is said to transcend humanity and the world when it is viewed as distinct from both and not wholly identical with either; the divine is said to be immanent when it is viewed as wholly or partially identical with some reality within the world, such as humanity or the cosmic order. The conception of the divine as an impersonal sacred order represents the extreme of immanence since that order is regarded as entirely within the world and not as imposing itself from without.
The conception of the divine as an individual or self represents the extreme of transcendence, since God is taken as not wholly identical with either the world or any finite reality within it. Most enduring, historical religious traditions find their roots in the religious experience and insight of charismatic individuals who have served as founders; the sharing of their experience among disciples and followers leads to the establishment of a religious community.
Thus, the social dimension of religion is a primary fact, but it need not be seen as opposed to religious experience taken as a wholly individual affair. The social expression of religious experience results in the formation of specifically religious groups distinct from such natural groups as the family, the local society, and the state.
Religious communities , including brotherhoods, mystery cults, synagogues, churches, sects, and monastic and missionary orders, serve initially to preserve and interpret their traditions or the body of doctrine, practices, and liturgical forms through which religious experience comes to be expressed.
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Such communities play a significant role in the shaping of religious experience and in determining its meaning for the individual through the structure of worship and liturgy and the establishment of a sacred calendar. Communities differ in the extent to which they stress the importance of individual experience of the divine, as distinct from adherence to a creed expressing the basic beliefs of the community. The tension between social and individual factors becomes apparent at times when the individual experience of the prophet or reformer conflicts with the norm of experience and interpretation established by the community.
Therefore, although the religious community aims at maintaining its historic faith as a framework within which to interpret experience of the divine, every such community must find ways of recognizing both novel experience and fresh insight resulting from individual reflection and contemplation. Religious experience is always understood by those who have it as pointing beyond itself to some reality regarded as divine. Analysis of religious experience, interpretations placed upon it, and the beliefs to which it gives rise may result in the denial that there is any such reality to be encountered or that the assertion of it is justified by the experience in question.
The question of the cognitive import or the objective validity of religious experience is one of the most difficult problems encountered in the philosophy of religion.
In confronting the question, it is necessary to distinguish between various ways of describing the phenomena under consideration and the critical appraisal of truth claims concerning the reality of the divine made on the basis of these phenomena. Even if describing and appraising are not utterly distinct and involve one another, it is generally admitted that the question of validity cannot be settled on the basis of historical or descriptive accounts alone.
Validity and cognitive import are matters calling for logical, semantic, epistemological, and metaphysical criteria—of the principles of rational order and coherence , meaning, knowledge, and reality—and this means that the appraisal of religious experience is ultimately a philosophical and theological problem. The anthropologist will seek to identify and describe the religious experience of tribal peoples as part of a general history and theory of humanity; the sociologist will concentrate on the social expression of religious experience and seek to determine the nature of specifically religious groupings in relation to other groups—associations and organizations that constitute a given society; the psychologist will seek to identify religious experience within the life of the person and attempt to show its relation to the total structure of the self, its behaviour, attitudes, and purposes.
In all these cases attention is directed to religious experience as a phenomenon to be described as a factor that performs certain functions in human life and society. As William Warde Fowler, a British historian, showed in his classic Religious Experience of the Roman People , the task of elucidating the role of religion in Roman society can be accomplished without settling the question of the validity or cognitive import of the religious feelings, ideas, and beliefs in question.
The empirical investigator, as such, has no special access to the critical question of the validity of religious experience. Others who hold that religious utterance based on experience is without cognitive import regard it as either the expression of emotions or an indication that the person using religious language has certain feelings that are associated with religion.
Those who follow the lead of Wittgenstein regard religious utterances as noncognitive but attempt to determine the way in which religious language is actually used within a circle of believers. Among defenders of the validity and cognitive import of religious experience, it is necessary to distinguish those who take such experience to be an immediate and self-authenticating encounter with the divine and those who claim that apprehension of the divine is the result of inference from, or interpretation of, religious experience.
Two forms of immediacy may be distinguished: Christian theologians, such as Emil Brunner and H. The second form of the immediate is the explicitly mystical sort of experience in which the aim is to pass beyond every form of articulation and to attain unity with the divine. A number of thinkers have insisted on the validity of religious experience but have denied that it can be understood as wholly immediate and self-supporting, since it stands in need of analysis and critical interpretation.
Others, such as H. Lewis and Charles Hartshorne , found the divine ingredient in the experience of the transcendent and supremely worshipful reality but demand that this experience be coherently articulated and, in the case of Hartshorne, supplemented by rational argument for the reality of the divine.
Dewey envisaged a religious quality in experience pointing to God as an ideal that stands in active and creative tension with the actual course of events.